Why Endurance Athletes Should Lift Heavy and Train Speed and Power

Endurance athletes are often told to avoid the weight room, or to stick with light weights and high repetitions so they do not get “bulky” or slow. The research says otherwise. Heavy strength training and speed and power work can make runners more efficient, and they do not have to cost you your engine.

There is a catch, though, and it is one that headlines like “lift heavy” tend to skip. Strength training is a skill. You earn the right to lift heavy by learning how to move well first.

This post covers what the research says, why speed and power work belongs in a runner’s week, and how to bring both in safely.

Does Strength Training Actually Make Runners Faster?

Mostly yes, and the main reason is not bigger muscles or a bigger engine. It is efficiency.

Running economy describes how much oxygen you use to hold a given pace. Two runners with the same VO2max can perform very differently if one of them spends less energy at race pace.

A 2008 study by Støren and colleagues had well-trained runners add eight weeks of heavy half squats (four sets of four repetitions, three times a week) to their normal running. Running economy improved by about 5%, and time to exhaustion at maximal aerobic speed improved by 21.3%. VO2max and body weight did not change (Støren et al., 2008).

A systematic review of 24 studies found that strength training generally improved running economy by 2 to 8% compared with running alone, though not in every study (Blagrove et al., 2018). A separate meta-analysis in highly trained runners reached a similar conclusion (Balsalobre-Fernández et al., 2016).

These gains come without a change in VO2max. You are not building a bigger engine. You are helping the one you have use less fuel.

Why Heavy?

Heavy lifting trains your nervous system to recruit more muscle fibres, and to do it more efficiently. You can get stronger without getting much bigger. Each stride then costs a smaller percentage of your maximum strength, so the same pace feels easier.

Load matters. A 2022 meta-analysis of long-distance runners found a small benefit to running economy from heavy resistance training, while plyometric training on its own had a trivial effect. Programs using loads near 90% of one-rep max showed greater effects than lighter loads (Eihara et al., 2022). A 2024 meta-analysis found that high-load strength training improved performance in middle and long-distance runners, and that combining methods may help more (Llanos-Lagos et al., 2024).

One caution: the studies above enrolled runners who were already trained and, in most cases, comfortable with the lifts. They tell us what heavy loading can do once someone is ready for it. They do not tell a beginner to start there.

Strength Is a Skill: Build the Foundation First

If you are new to lifting and cannot yet hinge, squat or lunge with good control, we are not loading you heavy. Lifting heavy before you can move well is how people get hurt, and how they end up with technique habits that are hard to undo.

This is what we call the general physical preparedness phase. It is usually higher volume and lower load, and its job is to build capacity: learning the fundamental patterns, strengthening tissues that have not been loaded much, and building the work capacity to handle harder training later.

How long this takes depends on the person. In my experience, a true novice usually spends two to three months here, but it can stretch to five or more, especially if we only see each other once a week. That is a coaching observation, not a research finding. Frequency, previous training history, and how quickly movement quality develops all change the timeline.

Once the movements are solid, the weight goes up and the repetitions come down. Someone with a lifting background can reasonably get there much sooner. The standard is not a calendar date. It is being able to perform the main patterns with control, consistently, under fatigue.

What About Speed and Power?

Strength is only part of what a running stride asks of you. Your foot is on the ground for a fraction of a second, which is far less time than a heavy squat takes. Rate of force development (RFD) is how quickly you can produce force, and power work trains that.

In a well-known study, Paavolainen and colleagues had endurance athletes replace part of their training with explosive work, including sprints, jumping drills and fast leg press and knee extension exercises, for nine weeks. Their 5 km time, running economy and maximal speed on a treadmill running test improved, while a control group that only did endurance training saw no change. VO2max did not change in the explosive group (Paavolainen et al., 1999). The sample was small (10 vs. 8 athletes), so treat it as supportive rather than final.

A review by Rønnestad and Mujika (2014) agreed that combining endurance training with either heavy or explosive strength work improves running economy. Proposed explanations include better neuromuscular efficiency and greater musculotendinous stiffness. Our post on dorsiflexion in plyometric training goes deeper on how the ankle works like a spring.

Power work does not have to start with anything complicated. Snap downs and med ball slams are introductory drills that teach you to produce force quickly and with intent. From there, we can progress to pogos, skipping, box jumps, broad jumps and other plyometrics as your landing mechanics and tissue tolerance allow. If you run trails, our post on strength training for trail running covers how this applies to climbs and uneven terrain.

Won’t Lifting Make Me Bulky or Slow?

The research on runners suggests this worry is largely unfounded. In the Støren study, body weight did not change, and running economy improved without a change in VO2max (Støren et al., 2008).

Muscle gain depends on training volume, nutrition and total energy intake. A few heavy, low-repetition sets alongside high running volume is not a bodybuilding program.

The bigger risk is the opposite one: stacking hard lifting on top of too much hard running without enough recovery. That is a programming problem, not a reason to avoid lifting.

Does Lifting Prevent Injuries?

This is less clear than people claim. A large review of exercise interventions found strength training was the most effective single intervention for reducing sports injuries overall (Lauersen et al., 2014), but that review covered many sports, not only running.

For runners specifically, the evidence is mixed. I would not promise that lifting will keep you injury-free. What I will say is that stronger tissues tolerate load better, and that supervised, well-progressed training is a sensible way to build that tolerance.

Principles for Applying This

Learn the movements before you load them

Technique comes first. If you cannot hinge, squat, lunge and brace well at light loads, more weight will not help you. Build the foundation, then progress.

Start the session with speed and power

When we train this, I usually begin with speed and power work, then move into heavy lifting, then accessory work. Power needs a fresh nervous system. If you try to jump or throw after a hard set of squats, quality drops, and quality is the point of those drills. This is session order. It is separate from the long-term progression above, which still moves from foundation to heavier loading as you get ready for it.

Keep the aerobic base the priority

Strength and power work supports endurance training. It does not replace it. Keep most of your running easy while you develop your aerobic base, and use strength work to complement it. If time is tight, two sessions a week is a realistic starting point, and intensity and consistency matter more than frequency (see our post on whether two days of strength training is enough).

Key Takeaways

•          Strength training improves running economy, often by roughly 2 to 8%, without raising VO2max.

•          Heavy loading shows larger benefits than light, high-repetition work, but the studies mostly involved trained runners who were already ready for it.

•          Strength is a skill. Novices need a general physical preparedness phase to learn the movements and build capacity before lifting heavy, and that can take months.

•          Speed and power work trains how quickly you can produce force. Snap downs and med ball slams are good starting drills, with pogos, skipping, box jumps and broad jumps to follow.

•          Injury prevention evidence for runners is mixed. Expect better load tolerance, not a guarantee.

•          In a session, power work generally goes first, then heavy lifting, then accessories.

Work With Avos Strength

If you are a runner in Vancouver wondering how to fit strength and power into your training, get in touch and we can build a plan around your goals and race calendar.

References

Balsalobre-Fernández, C., Santos-Concejero, J., & Grivas, G. V. (2016). Effects of strength training on running economy in highly trained runners: A systematic review with meta-analysis of controlled trials. Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research, 30(8), 2361-2368. https://doi.org/10.1519/JSC.0000000000001316

Blagrove, R. C., Howatson, G., & Hayes, P. R. (2018). Effects of strength training on the physiological determinants of middle- and long-distance running performance: A systematic review. Sports Medicine, 48(5), 1117-1149. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40279-017-0835-7

Eihara, Y., Takao, K., Sugiyama, T., Maeo, S., Terada, M., Kanehisa, H., & Isaka, T. (2022). Heavy resistance training versus plyometric training for improving running economy and running time trial performance: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Sports Medicine - Open, 8, 138. https://doi.org/10.1186/s40798-022-00511-1

Lauersen, J. B., Bertelsen, D. M., & Andersen, L. B. (2014). The effectiveness of exercise interventions to prevent sports injuries: A systematic review and meta-analysis of randomised controlled trials. British Journal of Sports Medicine, 48(11), 871-877. https://doi.org/10.1136/bjsports-2013-092538

Llanos-Lagos, C., Ramirez-Campillo, R., Moran, J., & Sáez de Villarreal, E. (2024). The effect of strength training methods on middle-distance and long-distance runners’ athletic performance: A systematic review with meta-analysis. Sports Medicine, 54(7), 1801-1833. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40279-024-02018-z

Paavolainen, L., Häkkinen, K., Hämäläinen, I., Nummela, A., & Rusko, H. (1999). Explosive-strength training improves 5-km running time by improving running economy and muscle power. Journal of Applied Physiology, 86(5), 1527-1533. https://doi.org/10.1152/jappl.1999.86.5.1527

Rønnestad, B. R., & Mujika, I. (2014). Optimizing strength training for running and cycling endurance performance: A review. Scandinavian Journal of Medicine & Science in Sports, 24(4), 603-612. https://doi.org/10.1111/sms.12104

Støren, Ø., Helgerud, J., Støa, E. M., & Hoff, J. (2008). Maximal strength training improves running economy in distance runners. Medicine & Science in Sports & Exercise, 40(6), 1087-1092. https://doi.org/10.1249/MSS.0b013e318168da2f

Wrist Pain During Back Squats: Could It Be a Position Problem?

The barbell back squat is primarily considered a lower-body exercise, but sometimes the limiting factor isn't your legs. It's getting your upper body into a comfortable position underneath the bar.

Wrist soreness or pain during back squats is a common complaint among recreational lifters. The first instinct is often to change the position of the hands: widen the grip, move the thumbs over the bar, adjust the elbows, or try to straighten the wrists.

Sometimes, that's all that's needed.

But what happens when you've adjusted your setup and your wrists still hurt?

The problem may not simply be your wrist position. Your wrists are at the end of a chain involving your hands, elbows, shoulders, shoulder blades and ribcage. If you can't comfortably access the shoulder position required to get underneath the bar, your body still has to find a way to get there.

For some lifters, that means compensating through the wrists.

What Position Does a Back Squat Require?

Although we think of the squat as a lower-body exercise, securing a barbell across your back creates significant demands on the upper body.

Your shoulders have to move into a combination of abduction and external rotation as your arms reach behind you. Your shoulder blades need to organize around your ribcage while your upper back creates a stable shelf for the bar.

Your hands help secure the bar in this position, but they shouldn't be responsible for supporting a significant portion of its weight.

If you can create a secure shelf with your upper back and comfortably reach the bar, some wrist extension isn't necessarily a problem. Plenty of lifters squat comfortably with their wrists slightly extended.

The issue is when the wrist has to extend farther to compensate for a position that isn't available elsewhere.

Instead of only asking:

"How do I keep my wrists straighter?"

A better question may be:

"Why do my wrists need to be in this position in the first place?"

Shoulder External Rotation May Be Part of the Puzzle

Try putting your arms into your normal back squat position without a bar.

Your upper arm has to externally rotate as you reach behind yourself. Exactly how much motion you need depends on your anatomy, grip width, bar placement and whether you squat high bar or low bar.

If you have enough movement available, you can establish your grip while keeping the bar securely supported across your upper back.

If you don't, your body still has to reach the bar somehow.

One option is to widen your grip. This generally reduces the shoulder mobility required, which is why changing grip width is one of the first adjustments worth trying.

But there's a limit to what changing your grip can accomplish.

If the required shoulder position still isn't available, you may compensate elsewhere. Your elbows may flare farther behind you, your ribcage may extend, or your wrists may extend further to maintain your grip on the bar.

That doesn't mean elbow flare or wrist extension is automatically bad.

The position becomes more relevant when it is painful, unstable, or changes significantly as load increases.

This is also why simply cueing someone to straighten their wrists may not solve the problem. If wrist extension is helping you compensate for shoulder motion you can't currently access, removing that compensation doesn't suddenly create more shoulder external rotation.

The Shoulder and Ribcage Don't Work Independently

Shoulder external rotation isn't just about the glenohumeral joint.

The scapula sits on the ribcage, and the orientation and movement of the thorax can influence how the scapula moves and the shoulder motion available above it.

Research has shown that changing thoracic posture can alter scapular kinematics and available shoulder range of motion (Kebaetse et al., 1999). Thoracic position has also been shown to influence scapulothoracic and glenohumeral contributions during shoulder external rotation (Yoshimi et al., 2022).

That doesn't mean your ribcage position is necessarily causing your wrist pain. It does mean that assessing shoulder external rotation without considering the thorax and scapula can miss part of the picture.

What About Posterior Expansion?

For some lifters, we may also look at their ability to expand the posterior ribcage, particularly through the upper and mid-thoracic region around T2–T7.

The scapula needs an appropriate surface on the ribcage to move and orient itself. If someone has limited posterior thoracic expansion, addressing that may give the scapula and shoulder additional movement options.

Research examining restricted thoracic expansion has demonstrated changes in scapular posterior tilt and glenohumeral external rotation during an external-rotation task (Yoshimi et al., 2022). That doesn't establish posterior compression as the cause of wrist pain during squatting, but it gives us a biomechanical rationale for considering thoracic expansion when assessing the position.

One drill we may use is a seated posterior expansion drill.

Rather than thinking of this as a shoulder stretch, the goal is to encourage expansion through the posterior ribcage and give the scapula a different surface to move on.

The important part comes next:

Retest the squat.

If the drill changes your ability to comfortably get underneath the bar, that's useful information. If nothing changes, there's little reason to assume that posterior expansion was the missing piece.

Can You Get Under the Bar While Staying Stacked?

Another strategy lifters sometimes use to reach the bar is extending through the spine and allowing the front of the ribcage to flare upward.

Essentially, you're creating additional apparent range by changing the position of your torso rather than accessing all of the movement from the shoulder.

This is where the concept of stacking becomes useful.

At Avos Strength, we use "stack" to describe the relationship between the ribcage and pelvis. Rather than relying on excessive spinal extension and rib flare to create a position, we want the athlete to be able to access the movement they need while maintaining an effective relationship between the ribcage and pelvis.

Read more about this in our article, The Stack.

This doesn't mean forcing your ribs down or trying to remain perfectly rigid. The ribcage, spine and pelvis all need to move.

Instead, ask yourself:

Can I get my hands onto the bar without dramatically changing the position of my ribcage and spine to make it happen?

If you can access substantially more apparent shoulder motion only by extending your spine and flaring your ribs, that's useful information.

High Bar vs. Low Bar Matters

Where you put the bar changes the position you need to achieve.

In a high-bar back squat, the bar typically rests across the upper trapezius.

In a low-bar back squat, the bar sits farther down across the posterior shoulder and upper back.

Low bar generally requires a more demanding shoulder position because you have to reach farther behind yourself to secure the bar.

That distinction matters.

You may have enough shoulder mobility to comfortably high-bar squat but struggle to establish a low-bar position without excessive wrist extension, elbow flare or compensatory changes elsewhere.

If your wrists bother you during low-bar squats, trying a high-bar position may therefore be one of the simplest modifications available.

[VIDEO: High-Bar Back Squat]

Neither variation is inherently better. Your anatomy, mobility, training history and goals should help determine which one makes sense for you.

Start With Your Setup

Before deciding that you have a mobility problem, start with the simplest variables.

Try adjusting:

• Grip width

• Bar placement

• Thumb position

• Wrist position

• Elbow position

• Upper-back tension

A slightly wider grip may decrease the shoulder mobility required to reach the bar. A thumbs-over grip may feel more comfortable for some lifters. Changing the bar position can also substantially alter what is required from the shoulder.

Your elbows matter too, but there isn't one universally correct elbow angle.

The goal is to create a stable upper-back shelf and secure the bar without relying excessively on your hands and wrists to support it.

One useful cue is:

"Pull the bar into your back rather than holding it up with your hands."

Pay attention to what happens when you create tension.

If your elbows have to flare dramatically or your wrists are forced farther into extension simply to secure the bar, don't assume that you need a stronger cue. You may be reaching the limits of the position you currently have available.

A Simple Troubleshooting Process

If your wrists hurt during back squats, don't immediately assume you need more mobility. Start by watching what actually happens, ideally under load, since static, unloaded mobility can look fine even when the position breaks down as the weight goes up.

1. Look at your current squat.
   When does the discomfort appear? Is it present with an empty bar or only under heavier loads? How extended are your wrists? Are your hands helping support the bar?

2. Adjust the setup.
   Experiment with grip width, thumb position, elbow position and bar placement.

3. Compare high bar and low bar.
   Does moving the bar higher allow you to establish the position more comfortably?

4. Look at the shoulder and thorax.
   Can you access the external rotation required without dramatically extending your spine or flaring your ribcage?

5. Try an intervention and retest.
   If posterior expansion or shoulder external rotation appears limited, use an appropriate drill and then immediately reassess the squat.

Did anything actually change?

1. Modify the exercise if necessary.
   If you still can't comfortably establish the position, choose another squat variation while you work on the limiting factor.

This is much more useful than performing mobility exercises indefinitely without knowing whether they're actually changing the movement you're trying to improve.

You Can Still Squat Heavy

Not being able to comfortably hold a straight bar across your back doesn't mean you need to stop squatting. It means you may need a different way to load the pattern.

Safety Bar Squat

The safety squat bar allows your hands to remain in front of your body, substantially reducing the shoulder-position demands associated with a traditional back squat.

You can still load the squat heavily without forcing yourself into an uncomfortable upper-extremity position.

For someone who wants to continue using a posteriorly loaded squat while working on their shoulder or thoracic movement options, this can be an excellent choice.

VIDEO: Back squat vs SSB

Front Squat

Moving the bar to the front of the body removes the behind-the-body shoulder position required by the back squat.

A traditional front rack introduces its own mobility requirements through the shoulders, elbows and wrists, so it isn't automatically appropriate for everyone.

Using straps to hold the bar can modify the front-rack position when necessary.

VIDEO: Front Squat

Zercher Squat

A Zercher squat places the bar in the crooks of the elbows.

This removes both the behind-the-body shoulder position of the back squat and the traditional front-rack position of the front squat.

It isn't necessarily the right choice for everyone, but it demonstrates an important principle:

The squat is the movement pattern. The barbell back squat is simply one way of loading it.

In the meantime, you can work directly on what's limiting you, posterior expansion work, shoulder external-rotation exercises, or improving your ribcage-pelvis relationship as your arms move, while continuing to build lower-body strength with whichever variation fits your current position. Periodically retest the back squat. You may find your position improves and you return to it, or that another variation simply works better for you long-term. Both are fine outcomes.

VIDEO: Zercher Squat

When Wrist Pain Needs More Than a Squat Adjustment

Not every painful wrist during a squat is a positioning problem.

Previous injuries, local tissue irritation, and issues involving the wrist, elbow or shoulder can all contribute to symptoms.

If your wrist hurts outside of squatting, symptoms are worsening, you have swelling, numbness or tingling, you've recently injured the area, or modifying your squat has little effect on your symptoms, an assessment by an appropriate healthcare professional may be warranted.

Takeaways

• Start with the simplest explanation: grip width, bar placement, wrist and elbow position, and how you're supporting the bar.

• If adjusting your setup doesn't solve it, consider whether you can actually access the shoulder and thoracic position the exercise requires.

• Some wrist extension isn't inherently a problem. If the position is comfortable, stable, and the bar is securely supported by your upper back, you don't need perfectly straight wrists.

• If the position is painful or unstable, don't force it. Work on the specific movement options that appear limited, then retest the squat to see if anything actually changed.

• Use a variation like the safety bar squat, front squat, or Zercher squat to keep training heavy while you work on the limitation, and periodically retest the back squat.

References

Kebaetse, M., McClure, P., & Pratt, N. A. (1999). Thoracic position effect on shoulder range of motion, strength, and three-dimensional scapular kinematics. Archives of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation, 80(8), 945–950. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0003-9993(99)90088-6

Yoshimi, M., Maeda, N., Komiya, M., Fukui, K., Tashiro, T., Kaneda, K., Arima, S., Tsutsumi, S., Abekura, T., & Urabe, Y. (2022). Effect of thoracic expansion restriction on scapulothoracic and glenohumeral joint motion during shoulder external rotation. Journal of Back and Musculoskeletal Rehabilitation, 35(6), 1399–1406. https://doi.org/10.3233/BMR-220006

What Is a Good Resting Heart Rate for Your Age? A Complete Guide

If you've ever checked your smartwatch or a pulse app and wondered whether your number is "good," you're not alone. It's one of the most common health questions people search for, and the honest answer is that it depends on more than your age.

Most adults fall somewhere between 60 and 100 beats per minute (bpm) at rest. But within that range, and sometimes well below it, your resting heart rate reflects your fitness level, your nervous system, your sleep, and even what you had for breakfast. This guide breaks down what the research actually says.

What Counts as a Normal Resting Heart Rate

Resting heart rate changes dramatically across childhood before settling into an adult range. According to a large U.S. national reference study from the CDC's National Center for Health Statistics, average resting pulse rate is around 129 bpm under age 1, drops to about 96 bpm by age 5, and falls further to roughly 78 bpm in early adolescence. By adulthood, the average plateaus around 72 bpm (Fleming et al., 2011).

Interestingly, that plateau doesn't happen at the same time for everyone. The same CDC data found that male resting pulse rate tends to plateau in early adulthood, while female resting pulse rate plateaus later, in middle age.

For most healthy adults, the clinically accepted normal range is 60 to 100 bpm (American Heart Association).

Why Resting Heart Rate Isn't Just About Age

Age explains the big picture, but it doesn't explain why two 40-year-olds can have resting heart rates 20 or 30 beats apart. A large analysis from the Fenland Study, involving thousands of adults, found that resting heart rate functions as a population-level biomarker of cardiorespiratory fitness, not simply a marker of age (Fenland Study researchers, 2023). In other words, your training history often tells you more about your resting heart rate than your birth certificate does. For a deeper look at how aging itself affects both resting and maximum heart rate, see our related post, Why Your Heart Rate Lowers as You Age.

What Actually Lowers Resting Heart Rate: Training Adaptations

This is where the mechanism gets interesting. A resting heart rate below 60 bpm, known as sinus bradycardia, is common in people who train consistently, and it's usually a sign of an efficient cardiovascular system, not a problem.

For years, the leading theory was that this was mostly driven by increased parasympathetic ("rest and digest") tone. More recent research points somewhere else: a 2014 study published in Nature Communications found that exercise training lowers resting heart rate through downregulation of the HCN4 "funny channel," a change in the heart's own pacemaker cells rather than just nervous system signalling (D'Souza et al., 2014). A related study found that training-induced bradycardia is largely explained by a reduced intrinsic heart rate, the heart's built-in resting rate independent of nerve signals (Lewis et al., 2016).

In plain terms: consistent aerobic training doesn't just calm your nervous system, it physically remodels how your heart's pacemaker cells behave.

Real-World Examples: How Low Can Resting Heart Rate Go?

Elite endurance athletes regularly measure resting heart rates in the 30s and low 40s bpm, a well-documented adaptation driven by increased stroke volume and vagal tone (Bradycardia in Athletes, Circulation, 2025). This isn't rare in that population, it's closer to the norm.

A few examples that come up often in sports media: five-time Tour de France winner Miguel Indurain has frequently been cited around 28 bpm, and Michael Phelps has been reported in the low-to-mid 30s during peak training. These are commonly repeated figures rather than individually verified clinical measurements, but they illustrate just how far this adaptation can go at the extreme end of endurance sport.

I've seen this firsthand. During my eight years competing in boxing, training six to eight times a week, my resting heart rate sat around 43 beats per minute, a direct result of years of consistent aerobic conditioning. Today, my resting heart rate is noticeably higher, sitting around 65 bpm. Aerobic training is something I've let slide in my own programming lately, and that number is proof of how quickly the adaptation fades without it. It's a good reminder, even for those of us who coach this for a living, that resting heart rate reflects what you're actually doing, not what you used to do.

When a Lower Number Isn't Automatically Better

It's worth being honest about the limits here. While training-induced bradycardia is usually benign, a 2025 review in Circulation notes it can, in rare cases, resemble a pathological condition affecting the heart's natural pacemaker (sinus node disease). Numbers alone don't tell the full story, symptoms matter. A low resting heart rate accompanied by dizziness, fainting, or unusual fatigue is worth discussing with a doctor. A low number with no symptoms, in someone who trains consistently, is usually just efficiency.

What Can Temporarily Raise Your Resting Heart Rate

Resting heart rate isn't fixed day to day. Common, usually temporary factors that can raise it include:

• Caffeine, which blocks adenosine receptors that normally promote relaxation, increasing alertness and heart rate

• Dehydration, which makes the heart work harder to maintain circulation

• Stress, through adrenaline and cortisol

• Poor sleep or sleep disruption

• Certain medications, including some decongestants, asthma medications, and thyroid medications

• Illness, particularly fever or infection

This is a big part of why tracking a single reading matters less than tracking your trend over time, ideally first thing in the morning, under similar conditions.

Resting Heart Rate and Long-Term Health Risk

This is the section worth taking seriously without overreacting to it. A meta-analysis published in CMAJ, pooling 46 studies and over 1.2 million people, found that each 10 bpm increase in resting heart rate was associated with a 9% higher relative risk of all-cause mortality (Zhang et al., 2016). Separately, the Kailuan cohort study, following over 47,000 adults, found that people with a persistently elevated resting heart rate across repeated measurements over several years had close to double the mortality risk of those with consistently lower readings (Wang et al., 2017).

To be clear, this is an association across large populations, not a prediction about any one individual. A single elevated reading doesn't mean much on its own. A consistent pattern over time, especially alongside other risk factors, is what the research is actually describing.

How to Apply This in Training

• Track your resting heart rate consistently, ideally first thing in the morning, before caffeine, to establish your own baseline rather than comparing yourself to a generic chart.

• Build your aerobic base through consistent, moderate-intensity training. See our Zone 2 Cardio Program for a structured approach to this.

• Watch for trends, not single readings. A sudden increase of 5 to 10 bpm above your normal baseline can be an early signal of fatigue, illness, or inadequate recovery.

• If your resting heart rate is consistently above 100 bpm at rest, or you notice a sudden unexplained change alongside symptoms like dizziness or fatigue, that's worth a conversation with your doctor.

Key Takeaways

• A normal adult resting heart rate falls between 60 and 100 bpm, with the population average settling around 72 bpm.

• Resting heart rate reflects fitness and training history at least as much as it reflects age.

• Consistent aerobic training can lower resting heart rate through real physiological changes in the heart's pacemaker cells, not just relaxation.

• Elite endurance athletes commonly measure in the 30s and low 40s bpm, an extreme but well-documented version of the same adaptation.

• A persistently elevated resting heart rate over time is associated with higher long-term health risk in large population studies, though a single reading says very little on its own.

Medical Disclaimer

This article is intended for general educational purposes only and does not constitute medical advice, diagnosis, or treatment. Resting heart rate can be affected by many individual factors, including medications and underlying health conditions. Anyone with concerns about their heart rate, or symptoms such as dizziness, fainting, chest discomfort, or unexplained fatigue, should consult a physician or qualified healthcare provider.

References

Fleming, S., et al. (2011). Resting pulse rate reference data for children, adolescents, and adults. National Health Statistics Reports, 41. https://www.cdc.gov/nchs/data/nhsr/nhsr041.pdf

Quer, G., et al. (2020). Inter- and intraindividual variability in daily resting heart rate and its associations with age, sex, sleep, BMI, and time of year. PLOS ONE. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7001906/

Fenland Study. (2023). Resting heart rate is a population-level biomarker of cardiorespiratory fitness. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC10174582/

D'Souza, A., et al. (2014). Exercise training reduces resting heart rate via downregulation of the funny channel HCN4. Nature Communications. https://www.nature.com/articles/ncomms4775

Lewis, N. C. S., et al. (2016). Exercise training bradycardia is largely explained by reduced intrinsic heart rate. International Journal of Cardiology. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/27497097/

Bradycardia in athletes: Prevalence, mechanisms, and risks. (2025). Circulation. https://www.ahajournals.org/doi/10.1161/CIRCULATIONAHA.125.076170

Zhang, D., et al. (2016). Resting heart rate and all-cause and cardiovascular mortality in the general population: A meta-analysis. CMAJ. https://www.cmaj.ca/content/188/3/E53

Wang, A., et al. (2017). Cumulative resting heart rate exposure and risk of all-cause mortality: Results from the Kailuan cohort study. Scientific Reports. https://www.nature.com/articles/srep40212

Target heart rates chart. American Heart Association. https://www.heart.org/en/healthy-living/exercise-and-physical-activity/fitness-basics/target-heart-rates

How Foot and Ankle Function May Improve Strength, Balance, and Longevity (Part 3)

Part 3: Improving Force Production and Movement From Head to Toe

Written by Michael Crawley, BSc, BPT, CSCS

This is the final post in our three-part series on force production and movement, moving from the head down to the point where we actually meet the ground: the foot and ankle.

Part 1 covered how tongue and jaw position influence force output and breathing. Part 2 covered the diaphragm's role in bracing, balance, and recovery. Here's a quick recap before we continue:

Jaw & Tongue (Part 1)

• Tongue roof pressure: force production

• Relaxed tongue position: improved breathing

• Jaw squeeze: force production and balance

Diaphragm & Breathing (Part 2)

• Valsalva maneuver: force production

• Proprioception: balance and stability

• Restoration and recovery: nervous system regulation

To set the scene for this post, a quote often attributed to Leonardo da Vinci: “The foot is a masterpiece of engineering and a work of art.”

That's a good starting point for looking at the anatomy and biomechanics of the foot and ankle, and how they play a role in everything from changing direction on a football pitch to reducing fall risk later in life.

Anatomy

The foot is made up of 28 bones, which together form 31 joints. An intricate, layered system of ligaments, muscles, tendons, and connective tissue allows this complex structure to provide power, stability, and flexibility all at once (Tourillon et al., 2024).

The sole of the foot has four layers of intrinsic muscles, which support the foot's strength and balance while working together with the calf muscles.

This network of tissue and bone can act in two different ways, depending on what's needed:

• As a rigid lever with stiffness: more tension, with the joints locking into place for stability

• As a compliant, flexible extension of the lower limb: less tension, with the joints opening up to absorb load

This yin-yang presentation resonates with aspects from part 1 & 2 of this series. The tongue supports both force production and relaxation. The diaphragm supports both bracing, to increase tension, and restoration, helping ease the nervous system out of a fight-or-flight response. The foot works the same way, shifting between rigid and compliant depending on the task.

The foot is also home to an extensive network of receptors and glands (Viseux, 2020). Because it's our main point of contact with the ground, and central to balance, the foot is packed with receptors that detect pressure, pain, and temperature. While specific receptors (muscle spindles and golgi tendon organs) pick up information on extent and speed of muscle stretch.

Another interesting component specific to feet, is the extremely high density of eccrine sweat glands. From an evolutionary perspective this was to help dissipate heat but also improve control through increasing friction against a surface. This hints that we are supposed to spend time in our bare feet and tap into the innate qualities which help humans have better balance and control. (See our related post, Rethinking Barefoot Shoes, for more on this).

Biomechanics

Biomechanics can get complicated quickly, so we'll keep this simple. Several actions happen at the foot and ankle that relate directly to what's happening at the knee and above. Depending on the source, this can be broken down in more or less detail. For this post, here's what we'll work with:

• Plantarflexion: the heel lifting off the ground, as in a calf raise

• Dorsiflexion: the knee travelling over the foot with the heel down, as in a knee bend

• Eversion: the sole of the foot turning outward, away from the midline of the body

• Inversion: the sole of the foot turning inward, toward the midline of the body

• Pronation: dorsiflexion and eversion combining gradually

• Supination: plantarflexion and inversion combining gradually

Moving through these positions changes where pressure and sensation are felt in the foot and ankle, depending on the task or skill being performed. For a simple way to feel these actions in relation to gait, try this step-through drill.

For the next section, the key detail to remember is pronation. Pronation involves the inside arch of the foot coming down toward the ground, coupled with internal rotation at the knee and hip above it:

Pronation = internal rotation = force production

Zooming out, all of these actions happen constantly during everyday activities, not just training. With so many moving parts working together, the receptors mentioned above are constantly updating the brain on balance, surface changes, and body position. This is where anatomy and mechanics come together to support function, and ultimately, longevity. From here, we'll look at some practical applications.

Foot Pressure and Force

At Avos Strength, this is something our clients hear often, cueing foot pressure and points of contact, whether they're squatting, hinging, or working on single-leg balance.

As covered above, pronation goes hand in hand with internal rotation and force production. In a training context, the two key points of contact are the base of the big toe and the inside of the heel.

Here's a simple way to feel both sensations at once: stand with your feet parallel and rotate your hips and torso to one side, as if looking over your shoulder. You should feel one foot flatten, with pressure increasing through the inside arch, while the other foot tents up, with pressure shifting toward the little toe side. This is also a useful drill to try barefoot, to start building awareness and sensation in the feet.

Sticking with the squat example from Part 2: say you've worked up to a heavy set and you're attempting a 3-rep max on the back squat. You've already organized your breath to create abdominal tension, and pressed your tongue to the roof of your mouth. At the bottom of the squat, you can add one more cue:

“Push the ground away with the entire foot, with a slight bias of pressure toward the inside arch”

This taps into the mechanics of pronation, and helps integrate the foot, knee, and hip when moving a heavy load.

The same idea applies to a hinge pattern like the RDL, which can meaningfully improve sensation and loading through the posterior chain. Here's a simple cue sequence to try:

1. Start with pressure predominantly through the midfoot.

2. As you complete the hinge, shift the pressure bias toward the heels.

3. Return to the start position by shifting pressure back to the midfoot.

Rotating, squatting heavy, and hinging are just three examples that have been shown above. The same principles can be applied across a wide range of exercises and variations to improve body awareness, muscle tension, and force output.

Receptors, Balance, and Stability

As covered in the anatomy section, the foot has layers of small muscles and a wide range of receptors. Unfortunately, starting in our 40s, both the number and sensitivity of these receptors tend to decline (García-Piqueras et al., 2019), alongside some atrophy of the small muscles in the foot (Menz, 2014). This is part of why we put such an emphasis on training for longevity, balance and stability work included.

The good news: there are simple exercises that can help maintain range of motion, receptor function, and muscle strength.

A good starting point is training the foot's intrinsic muscles, by challenging the big toe and other toes to work both together and independently, lifting and pressing into the ground. To add a strength component, try curling the toes against the ground to move forward in a creeping motion.

• Foot intrinsic exercise

• Foot intrinsic creep

Single-leg balance is another simple, effective option: aim to balance on one leg for a set period of time. This can be regressed using a wall for support, or progressed by adding a ball toss for perturbation. To combine intrinsic strength, balance, and stability, try a mini calf raise with the forefoot elevated on an unstable surface. A couple of examples:

• Medicine ball single-leg stability

• Single-leg heel-gap stand

You can also get creative by layering in the foot pressure concepts from the previous section, or by changing surfaces (an Airex pad, a yoga mat, or artificial turf) to create a richer sensory environment for the nerve receptors to respond to.

This matters more than it might seem. Research has shown that improving strength at the big toe can improve sprint and jump performance (Tourillon et al., 2024), and that improving intrinsic foot strength can reduce fall risk and improve proprioception in older adults (Futrell et al., 2025). Worth trying, and worth sticking with.

How to Apply This in Training

• Producing force in strength exercises: cue medial arch pressure, pushing into the floor through the base of the big toe and inside heel

• Rotating and reaching in different directions with the arms: a simple way to challenge and improve foot mechanics and mobility

• Isolated foot intrinsic exercises, done on different surfaces: improves receptor sensitivity and helps limit atrophy of the small muscles in the foot

Key Takeaways

• The foot and ankle play a direct role in force production, largely through pronation and how pressure moves through the foot

• Foot receptors and small intrinsic muscles decline with age, but simple, consistent exercises can help offset that decline

• Improving big toe and intrinsic foot strength has been linked to better sprint and jump performance, and reduced fall risk in older adults

• Like the tongue and diaphragm covered earlier in this series, the foot is often overlooked, but it's a low-effort, high-value area to train

Wrapping Up the Series

That brings this three-part series to a close. The goal throughout has been to highlight simple, practical strategies for improving performance, supporting rehabilitation, and protecting long-term health across a wide range of people, from soccer players to those managing diabetic neuropathy and reduced foot sensation.

The tongue, diaphragm, and foot are often overlooked in training, but each is a low-effort, high-value place to start. All it takes is awareness, some practice, and consistency. Hopefully, you can reap the benefits.

If you're curious how cues like these show up in your own training, whether it's foot pressure, breathing, or tongue position, that's exactly the kind of detail our coaches build into every program at Avos Strength. Feel free to reach out if you'd like to see what that looks like in practice.

References

Futrell, E., et al. (2025). The effects of intrinsic foot muscle strengthening interventions for adults over age 65: A randomized controlled trial protocol. Frontiers in Aging, 6. https://doi.org/10.3389/fragi.2025.1622232

García-Piqueras, J., et al. (2019). Ageing of the somatosensory system at the periphery: Age-related changes in cutaneous mechanoreceptors. Journal of Anatomy, 234(6), 839–852. https://doi.org/10.1111/joa.12983

Menz, H. B. (2014). Biomechanics of the ageing foot and ankle: A mini-review. Gerontology, 61(4), 381–388. https://doi.org/10.1159/000368357

Tourillon, R., et al. (2024). Human foot muscle strength and its association with sprint acceleration, cutting and jumping performance, and kinetics in high-level athletes. Journal of Sports Sciences, 42, 1–11. https://doi.org/10.1080/02640414.2024.2367365

Viseux, F. J. F. (2020). The sensory role of the sole of the foot: Review and update on clinical perspectives. Neurophysiologie Clinique, 50(1), 55–68. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neucli.2019.12.003

Salt Is Essential: Why Hydration Is About More Than Just Water

For decades, salt has been treated as one of nutrition’s greatest villains. People have been told to avoid it, purchase low-sodium products, and assume that consuming less is always better.

In my opinion, this conversation has become far too simplistic.

Salt is not merely something we sprinkle on food. Sodium is an essential electrolyte required for life. It helps regulate fluid balance, maintain blood volume, transmit nerve impulses, and support muscle contraction.

Even in hospitals, saline solutions containing salt and water are used in potentially life-saving situations. That does not mean more salt is always better, but it does demonstrate just how important sodium and water are to normal human physiology.

Hydration is not simply about drinking as much plain water as possible. Water matters, but so do the minerals that help the body use and regulate it.

Water Is Essential, but Electrolytes Matter Too

Plain water hydrates you. However, water is only one part of the body’s fluid-balance system.

Electrolytes are electrically charged minerals that help regulate fluid movement, nerve signalling, muscle contraction, and normal cellular function.

Sodium is the main electrolyte in the fluid outside our cells. Potassium is found primarily inside our cells. Magnesium, calcium, and chloride also contribute to normal nerve, muscle, and cellular function.

Most people obtain the electrolytes they need through food. However, electrolyte needs may increase when someone loses a significant amount of fluid through:

• Prolonged or intense exercise

• Heavy sweating

• Hot weather

• Vomiting or diarrhea

• Certain illnesses or medications

In these situations, plain water may not replace everything that has been lost. Replacing sodium alongside fluid can help restore fluid balance and support water retention.

The goal is not to consume as much sodium as possible. The goal is to consume an appropriate amount for your body, activity level, diet, environment, and health.

Salt and Athletic Performance

Salt becomes especially relevant during prolonged activity, heavy sweating, and exercise in hot conditions.

Sodium is lost through sweat, but the amount varies considerably from person to person. Some athletes lose relatively little sodium, while others lose enough to leave visible salt marks on their clothing or skin.

Alongside adequate fluid and nutrition, sodium can help:

• Replace sodium lost through sweat

• Support fluid retention

• Maintain blood volume

• Support nerve signalling

• Support normal muscle function

• Reduce the risk of excessively diluting blood sodium with large amounts of plain water

This does not mean every workout requires an electrolyte drink.

Someone completing a short training session in a climate-controlled gym may not need anything beyond water and a balanced diet. Someone exercising for several hours in the heat may have very different needs.

Body size, climate, exercise intensity, duration, acclimatization, diet, genetics, sweat rate, and sweat-sodium concentration all influence how much sodium someone may require.

The goal is not maximum sodium intake. The goal is to replace an appropriate amount of what has been lost.

Do Not Overdo Electrolyte Products

Electrolytes have become one of the biggest trends in wellness and sports nutrition. Powders, tablets, drops, packets, and premixed beverages are now everywhere.

Some of these products can be useful. Others are unnecessary for the situation in which they are being consumed.

Electrolyte drinks should not automatically replace all the plain water someone drinks throughout the day. Products vary considerably in their sodium, potassium, magnesium, sugar, and total mineral content.

Someone using several electrolyte products while also eating a high-sodium diet may consume much more than they realize.

Both underhydration and overhydration can be dangerous. Drinking excessive amounts of plain water can dilute blood sodium. Consuming too many highly concentrated electrolyte products can create a different kind of imbalance.

More is not always better.

Use electrolyte products intentionally. Consider:

• How long and intensely you are exercising

• The temperature and humidity

• How heavily you sweat

• Your regular diet

• The concentration of the product

• Your medical history

• Whether you are already using other electrolyte products

Hydration is about balance, not consuming the maximum possible amount of water or electrolytes.

What About Everyday Hydration?

You do not need to be an endurance athlete for hydration to matter.

While you sleep, you normally go several hours without drinking. During that time, your body continues losing water through breathing, perspiration, and urine production.

That does not mean everyone wakes up clinically dehydrated. However, it is normal to wake with some fluid to replace, especially if you did not drink enough the previous day.

Drinking water after waking is a simple way to begin replacing that fluid.

I personally add a small pinch of quality salt to my morning water. For an otherwise healthy person without a medical reason to restrict sodium, I see this as a simple optional morning practice.

Does everyone require salted water when they wake up? No. Plain water still hydrates, and many people obtain plenty of sodium through food.

However, a modest pinch of salt in a full glass of water provides a small amount of sodium alongside the water you are already drinking.

Could Salt Water Help with Headaches, Low Energy, Brain Fog, or Cramps?

Headaches, low energy, brain fog, difficulty focusing, and muscle cramps can have many different causes.

These may include:

• Insufficient sleep

• Inadequate food intake

• Stress

• Illness

• Medication effects

• Dehydration

• Electrolyte imbalances

• Muscular fatigue

• Changes in caffeine intake

Salt is not a cure for every symptom.

However, inadequate fluid or electrolyte intake can sometimes contribute to how a person feels. When fluid intake has been low, drinking water with a small amount of salt may be a simple option to try.

When I develop a headache or realize I have not consumed much fluid during the day, the first thing I often try is a glass of water with some salt. I personally find that it helps me.

That is my personal experience, not a promise that it will work for everyone.

For a generally healthy person without hypertension, kidney disease, heart disease, or another reason to restrict sodium, a modest amount of salt in water may be worth trying when fluid or electrolyte intake may have been inadequate.

It should not replace identifying the underlying cause. Symptoms that are severe, persistent, unusual, or recurring should be discussed with a qualified medical practitioner.

Muscle Cramps Are More Complicated Than They Seem

Muscle cramps are often blamed entirely on dehydration or sodium loss, but the reality is more complex.

Fatigue, training load, conditioning, heat, neuromuscular factors, and individual fluid and electrolyte losses may all contribute.

Sodium is not the only electrolyte involved in normal muscle function. Magnesium also plays an important role in muscle contraction, relaxation, nerve signalling, and energy production. In some cases, inadequate sodium, magnesium, fluid, or overall nutrition may contribute to cramping, but cramps should not automatically be assumed to result from a single deficiency.

For some people, replacing sodium or magnesium may help when their intake has been inadequate. For others, the primary issue may be fatigue, training load, conditioning, or another underlying factor.

This is another reason why there is no universal hydration or cramp-management strategy.

Context matters.

Are Natural and Himalayan Salts Better?

I personally choose minimally processed, naturally sourced salts. I commonly use Redmond Real Salt, although this article is not sponsored by or affiliated with the company. I have also purchased salt directly from mines in Peru.

I value knowing where my salt comes from, and I prefer the flavour and texture of natural salt.

Natural salts may contain trace amounts of minerals such as iron, magnesium, calcium, and potassium. However, these minerals are usually present in amounts too small to make salt a major source of daily nutrition.

Choose a salt you enjoy from a reputable source, but obtain most of your essential minerals through nutritious foods.

It is also important to understand that pink salt does not automatically mean genuine Himalayan salt.

Colour alone does not verify:

• Where the salt came from

• How it was processed

• Whether it is pure

• Whether it is high quality

Most commercial Himalayan pink salt comes from ancient salt deposits in Pakistan’s Salt Range, particularly around the Khewra region.

The term Himalayan is partly geographical and partly marketing. It does not mean the salt was collected directly from Himalayan mountain peaks.

Read the packaging and look for transparent sourcing rather than relying only on colour or branding.

What About Iodized Table Salt?

Iodized salt is table salt with added iodine. Iodine is required for producing thyroid hormones and supporting normal thyroid function.

However, iodized salt is not the only source of iodine.

Iodine can also be obtained from foods such as:

• Fish and shellfish

• Dairy products

• Eggs

• Seaweed

• Foods prepared with iodized salt

People who obtain sufficient iodine through their diet may not need to rely on iodized salt. However, natural, sea, kosher, and Himalayan salts do not necessarily provide meaningful iodine unless the product has specifically been iodized.

Anyone who exclusively uses non-iodized salt should be aware of where their iodine is coming from.

More iodine is not automatically better. Both inadequate and excessive iodine intake can be problematic, particularly for people with certain thyroid conditions.

Salt, Sugar, and Processed Food

In my opinion, salt has received a disproportionate amount of blame compared with sugar.

That does not mean that everyone should consume unlimited amounts of salt or that all sugar must be completely avoided. My point is that salt is often treated as the greater nutritional threat, when I believe added sugar deserves far more scrutiny.

It is also important to consider where most dietary sodium and sugar are coming from. Many people are not consuming most of their sodium through a small pinch of quality salt added to a home-cooked meal.

They are consuming it through:

• Packaged snacks

• Fast food

• Processed meats

• Sauces

• Frozen meals

• Restaurant food

Those foods may also contain high amounts of added sugar, refined carbohydrates, low-quality fats, and very little fibre or nutritional variety.

The quality of the overall diet matters.

I do not believe natural salt should be treated as the enemy while the effects of excessive added sugar and a heavily processed diet are ignored.

At the same time, calling a salt natural does not mean unlimited consumption is harmless. Natural salt still contains sodium.

The amount, source, individual, activity level, health status, and overall dietary pattern all matter.

The Bottom Line

Salt is not simply a flavour enhancer, nor is it a substance that should automatically be feared.

Sodium is an essential electrolyte involved in:

• Fluid balance

• Blood-volume regulation

• Nerve transmission

• Muscle contraction

• Normal cellular function

• Exercise and heat-related hydration

Plain water hydrates, and most people do not require electrolyte drinks throughout the entire day.

However, there are circumstances in which water alone may not replace all the fluid and sodium someone has lost.

I personally begin my morning with water containing a small pinch of quality salt. I also often try water with salt when I develop a headache or realize I have not consumed much fluid that day. This is a routine that works well for me.

You may find that plain water works perfectly well for you. You may also find that a small amount of salt or an appropriately formulated electrolyte drink is helpful under certain circumstances.

The key is to stop thinking in extremes.

Salt is not a miracle cure, but it is also not inherently the enemy. It is an essential nutrient whose effects depend on the amount consumed, the person consuming it, their diet, activity, fluid losses, and overall health.

Medical Disclaimer

This article is intended for general educational purposes only and does not constitute medical advice, diagnosis, or treatment.

Sodium and fluid requirements vary between individuals. People with hypertension, kidney disease, heart disease, fluid-retention disorders, endocrine conditions, or other medical concerns, as well as those taking medications that affect blood pressure or fluid and electrolyte balance, should consult their physician or another qualified healthcare practitioner before deliberately increasing salt or electrolyte intake.

Seek medical assessment for severe, recurring, persistent, or unexplained symptoms.

How Diaphragm Function and Breathing May Improve Strength, Balance, and Recovery

Part 2: Improving Force Production and Movement From Head to Toe

Written by Michael Crawley, BSc, BPT, CSCS

Part 1 of this series looked at how jaw and tongue position influence force output and function. Part 2 turns to the diaphragm and breathing, and how they influence those same systems. As you'll see, good tongue and jaw function and good diaphragm function are closely connected, each affecting the other.

For a healthy individual, the diaphragm works through roughly 18,000 to 30,000 breaths a day. Breathing rate is largely involuntary, generated by the brainstem, but we can also consciously control it for more deliberate tasks.

Learning to influence your breathing can improve athletic performance, reduce some of the risks associated with aging, and support recovery. Before getting into that, here's a quick look at the anatomy involved.

Anatomy

The diaphragm's anatomy is complex, with connection points throughout the body. These connections include the sternum, ribs, and lumbar spine. The diaphragm also has openings that allow passage for major vessels such as the aorta and esophagus, creating a functional link between the thorax above and the abdomen below (Bordoni & Zanier, 2013).

Neural drive to the diaphragm comes from the cervical spine (C3, C4, C5), often remembered with the cue “C3-4-5 keeps the diaphragm alive.” Another key input comes from the vagus nerve, which helps regulate the depth and frequency of diaphragmatic movement, and plays an especially important role in the parasympathetic (“rest and digest”) side of breathing. These details set up the mechanisms discussed below, and help explain how to bias breathing for different outcomes.

Diaphragm, Valsalva, and Force Production

You've probably heard the cue “use your core” in gym and sport settings. It's not a particularly useful instruction, and it often gets misread as crunching the abdominals down and forward. That doesn't support what we call The Stack at Avos Strength, and it doesn't create an efficient system for force production.

As you inhale and exhale, the diaphragm's movement changes lung volume, which can be used to increase intra-abdominal pressure (IAP). This pressure allows the breath, abdominal muscles, and back muscles to work together, improving spinal stability and force production (Guo et al., 2021).

The Valsalva maneuver (VM) is a forceful exhale against a closed airway. Lifting heavy loads, or lighter loads close to failure, naturally creates a brief VM (Hackett & Chow, 2013). Combined with increased IAP, this is thought to improve spinal stability and allow for more efficient force production.

Disclaimer: Confirm with a healthcare provider that increasing training intensity or intentionally using the Valsalva maneuver is appropriate for you before adding it to your training.

A common strategy is to crunch the abdominals aggressively, which shortens the abdominal muscles and pulls the chest forward. Ironically, this limits the diaphragm's ability to descend and air to enter the thorax. To make this more concrete, here's a simple bracing sequence using the squat as an example:

1. Standing / prep: A gentle breath in, ideally through the nose.

2. Standing / prep: A slow, relaxed exhale through the mouth to generate abdominal tension.

3. Immediately pre-squat: A slight re-inhale to increase pressure against the abdominal wall.

4. Bottom position: An exhale against a closed mouth or pursed lips if the weight is heavy or fatigue is building.

For a step-by-step walkthrough, see this short video: The Myth of Bracing.

There's nuance here depending on load and volume. For example:

• At higher intensity (4 sets of 3 reps at 80% 1RM), you might reset your brace and breath every rep, or every second rep, using step 4 each time.

• At higher volume with lower intensity (3 sets of 6 reps at 70% 1RM), you might complete the first 3 to 4 reps without resetting, and without needing a forceful exhale against a closed mouth. Step 4 might only be needed on the last rep or two.

This sequence isn't necessary for every movement. Relaxed, lower-intensity work without a deliberate brace and Valsalva maneuver is a perfectly healthy strategy for exercises such as:

• Jefferson curl variations

• Spinal flow and rotational work

• Lower-intensity isometric work with continuous breathing

Now, from force production to the softer, broader effects of the diaphragm and breathing.

Further Roles and Influence

1. Proprioception, Balance, and Coordination

Proprioception (your sense of position in space), balance, and coordination are constant, everyday requirements, drawing on input from the inner ear, muscles, eyes, and nervous system. As people age, this information tends to travel less quickly and smoothly, which raises the risk of falls and related injuries. Balance exercises, walking on uneven ground, and visual exercises can all help offset that risk.

The diaphragm plays a role here too. Through its relationship with visceral fat, the diaphragm is itself a source of proprioceptive feedback (Bordoni & Zanier, 2013). Nazir et al. (2026) found that diaphragmatic breathing exercises improved balance confidence, reduced fatigue, and improved gait velocity in older adults.

The exercise used to produce that improvement was simple:

• Twice a week: 2 rounds of 6 minutes of focused diaphragmatic breathing.

• Diaphragmatic breathing: one hand on the chest, one hand on the belly button. Breathe in through the nose for 4 seconds, out through the mouth for 6 seconds.

No equipment, minimal time, and a meaningful reduction in fall risk. That's a good example of how much reach this type of training can have.

2. Restoration and Recovery

Many people are good at the hard side of training: pushing through a tough session, finishing a hard interval workout. Deliberate breathing plays an important role there, as discussed above, but recovery and downregulation matter just as much.

As mentioned in the anatomy section, the vagus nerve supplies the diaphragm and is tied to the rest-and-digest side of the nervous system. Slower, relaxed, mindful breathing after high-intensity activity can help activate the parasympathetic nervous system. Research has linked this to reductions in heart rate and respiration rate, and improvements in heart rate variability (Renaghan et al., 2023). See also Why Your Training Program Won't Work Without Sleep, Nutrition, and Recovery for more on why recovery deserves this kind of attention.

A simple way to introduce this: find a comfortable position (sitting, lying flat, or on your side) and take 10 to 20 relaxed breaths in through the nose and out through the mouth. Beyond supporting recovery, it also bookends the workout, creating a clear separation between the hard and the soft.

These are two of many ways the diaphragm and breathing influence training and daily life. There's a lot of literature on specific breathing styles (box breathing, Buteyko, and others), which can get overwhelming quickly. The simplest entry point is just adding short periods of focused, intentional breathing: relaxed in through the nose, slightly prolonged out through the mouth.

How to Apply This in Training

• Resistance training: Don't crunch the abdominals. Use a deliberate inhale-exhale to create stiffness before the movement. If appropriate, incorporate the Valsalva maneuver on higher-intensity efforts or more fatiguing higher-rep sets.

• Balance and proprioception: For older adults, add 2 sessions per week of 10 to 15 minutes of deliberate breathing practice to help offset age-related balance and fall risk.

• Restoration: Use relaxed breathing in a comfortable position after hard training to support recovery and help the body absorb the training stimulus.
  

Key Takeaways

• The diaphragm supports force production during strength training, largely through its role in generating intra-abdominal pressure.

• Deliberate breathing, not aggressive crunching, is what creates a stable, braced trunk.

• Diaphragmatic breathing can meaningfully improve balance and reduce fall risk in older adults, with just a few minutes of practice per week.

• Slow, relaxed breathing after training helps activate recovery through the parasympathetic nervous system.

• Simple, short breathing practices, done consistently, offer an outsized return relative to the effort involved.

Next Up

Moving down the body: the next post in this series will cover foot pressure and foot strength, and how they relate to force production, balance, and longevity, in the gym, in sport, and in everyday life.

References

Bordoni, B., & Zanier, E. (2013). Anatomic connections of the diaphragm: Influence of respiration on the body system. Journal of Multidisciplinary Healthcare, 6, 281–291. https://doi.org/10.2147/JMDH.S45443

Guo, J., et al. (2021). Embodiment of intra-abdominal pressure in a flexible multibody model of the trunk and the spinal unloading effects during static lifting tasks. Biomechanics and Modeling in Mechanobiology, 20(4), 1599–1626. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10237-021-01465-1

Hackett, D. A., & Chow, C.-M. (2013). The Valsalva maneuver: Its effect on intra-abdominal pressure and safety issues during resistance exercise. Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research, 27(8), 2338–2345. https://doi.org/10.1519/JSC.0b013e31827de07d

Nazir, S., et al. (2026). The effect of diaphragmatic breathing and diaphragmatic mobilization on physical performance, fear of falling, and quality of life in community-dwelling older adults: A randomized controlled trial. PLoS ONE, 21(1), e0339868.

Renaghan, E., et al. (2023). The effects of relaxation techniques following acute, high intensity football training on parasympathetic reactivation. Frontiers in Sports and Active Living, 5. https://doi.org/10.3389/fspor.2023.1267631